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Kurth S, Huber R. Sleep slow oscillations and cortical maturation. In: Frank MG, editor. Sleep and brain activity. Elsevier; 2012. Bellesi M, Pfister-Genskow M, Maret S, Keles S, Tononi G, Cirelli C. Effects of sleep and wake on oligodendrocytes and their precursors. J Neurosci: Off J Soc Neurosci. 2013;33(36):14288–300. Using translating ribosome affinity purification combined with microarray analysis in mice, this research shows sleep-specific proliferation of oligodendrocyte precursor cells and phospholipid synthesis. Implications are that the mechanisms associated with myelination may preferentially occur during sleep. Feinberg I, Campbell IG. Sleep EEG changes during adolescence: an index of a fundamental brain reorganization. Brain Cogn. 2010;72(1):56–65. Deoni SC, Dean 3rd DC, O’Muircheartaigh J, Dirks H, Jerskey BA. Investigating white matter development in infancy and early childhood using myelin water faction and relaxation time mapping. Neuroimage. 2012;63(3):1038–53. Frank MG, Morrissette R, Heller HC. Effects of sleep deprivation in neonatal rats. Am J Physiol. 1998;275(1 Pt 2):R148–57.

In vivo experiments in mice allow for the quantification of cortical plasticity in relation to sleep or wakefulness. In adolescent mice, synaptic remodeling is state dependent: While a gain in cortical spines prevailed during waking, spine loss was larger during sleep, resulting in a negative spine balance at this developmental stage [ 92, 93]. Importantly, this spine elimination was only found during development, while no sleep-wake-dependent net changes of spine density were observed in adult mice. These findings confirm that in adolescent mice, a few hours of sleep and wake affect the density of cortical synapses while after adolescence primarily changes in synaptic strength rather than number can be observed. As shown in adult rats, an overall synaptic balance is preserved [ 94]. Recent research shows that specific burst firing, the characteristic firing pattern of sleep slow oscillations [ 95], can impact the functional change of glutamatergic synapses [ 96•]. Induced burst firing in pyramidal neurons (cortical slices) eliminates AMPA receptors and induces input-specific long-term depression because neuronal plasticity represents a continuum from malleability of existing synapses to structural plasticity, including synapse formation and elimination [ 97], the impact of SWA on synaptic plasticity may ultimately result in changes in cortical connectivity. Sleep Increases the Interstitial Space Thereby Reducing Neurotoxic Waste Hypothesis: Attwell D, Laughlin SB. An energy budget for signaling in the grey matter of the brain. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab. 2001;21(10):1133–45. Tiriac A, Uitermarkt BD, Fanning AS, Sokoloff G, Blumberg MS. Rapid whisker movements in sleeping newborn rats. Curr Biol. 2012;22(21):2075–80. Data from this study show that during active (REM) sleep, infant rats exhibit highly structured whisker twitching, which induces specific cortical activity. This study contributes to our understanding about interactions between peripheral sensory activity and somatosensory integration during period of neural network development. Xie L, Kang H, Xu Q, Chen MJ, Liao Y, Thiyagarajan M, et al. Sleep drives metabolite clearance from the adult brain. Science. 2013;342(6156):373–7. Cirelli C. A molecular window on sleep: changes in gene expression between sleep and wakefulness. Neuroscientist : Rev J Bringing Neurobiol, Neurol Psychiatry. 2005;11(1):63–74. eng.Van Eden CG, Uylings HB. Postnatal volumetric development of the prefrontal cortex in the rat. J Comp Neurol. 1985;241(3):268–74. Although cortical and subcortical maturation follows specific spatial trajectories, the functional relevance of these anatomical changes remains understudied. Moreover, increasing evidence suggests microglia to play a crucial role in the elimination of synapses. The potential state-dependent role of microglial-dependent synapse elimination during adolescence remains to be examined. Chugani HT. A critical period of brain development: studies of cerebral glucose utilization with PET. Prev Med. 1998;27(2):184–8. Marshall L, Helgadottir H, Molle M, Born J. Boosting slow oscillations during sleep potentiates memory. Nature. 2006;444(7119):610–3.

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Fields RD. Imaging learning: the search for a memory trace. Neuroscientist : Rev J Bringing Neurobiol Neurol Psychiatry. 2011;17(2):185–96. Ringli M, Huber R. Developmental aspects of sleep slow waves: linking sleep, brain maturation and behavior. Prog Brain Res. 2011;193:63–82. Booth RF, Patel TB, Clark JB. The development of enzymes of energy metabolism in the brain of a precocial (guinea pig) and non-precocial (rat) species. J Neurochem. 1980;34(1):17–25.

The ultimate sex-positive manifesto will show you how to reclaim and pursue your sexual desires, sensuality, autonomy, and pleasure. By breaking down taboos, rejecting shame, and refusing repression, we can all harness the power of sexual freedom and start enjoying the – sex – life we’ve always dreamt of. Maret S, Faraguna U, Nelson AB, Cirelli C, Tononi G. Sleep and waking modulate spine turnover in the adolescent mouse cortex. Nat Neurosci. 2011;14(11):1418–20. This two-photon microscopy study in adolescent mice shows that synaptic strength is modulated by behavioral state, such that waking is associated with a net increase in cortical spines, while sleep is associated with a net spine loss.Frank MG, Issa NP, Stryker MP. Sleep enhances plasticity in the developing visual cortex. Neuron. 2001;30(1):275–87.