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Lineweaver H, Burk D (1934) The determination of enzyme dissociation constants. J Am Chem Soc 56(3):658–666 Prance, G. T. (2001). "Discovering the Plant World". Taxon. 50 (2, Golden Jubilee Part 4): 345–359. doi: 10.2307/1223885. JSTOR 1223885. Plants reproduce asexually by growing any of a wide variety of structures capable of growing into new plants. At the simplest, plants such as mosses or liverworts may be broken into pieces, each of which may regrow into whole plants. The propagation of flowering plants by cuttings is a similar process. Structures such as runners enable plants to grow to cover an area, forming a clone. Many plants grow food storage structures such as tubers or bulbs which may each develop into a new plant. [69] Koukol, J., & Conn, E. E. (1961). The metabolism of aromatic compounds in higher plants. Journal of Biological Chemistry, 236, 2692–2698.

Crandall-Stotler, Barbara; Stotler, Raymond E. (2000). "Morphology and classification of the Marchantiophyta". In Shaw, A. Jonathan; Goffinet, Bernard (eds.). Bryophyte Biology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p.21. ISBN 0-521-66097-1. Hou C, Yuan Q, Huo D, Zheng S, Zhan D (2008) Investigation on clotting and hemolysis characteristics of heparin-immobilized polyether sulfones biomembrane. J Biomed Mater Res Part A 85(3):847–852. https://doi.org/10.1002/jbm.a.31502 Strother, Paul K.; Battison, Leila; Brasier, Martin D.; Wellman, Charles H. (26 May 2011). "Earth's earliest non-marine eukaryotes". Nature. 473 (7348): 505–509. Bibcode: 2011Natur.473..505S. doi: 10.1038/nature09943. PMID 21490597. S2CID 4418860. Jia, S. R., Cui, J. D., Li, Y., & Sun, A. Y. (2008). Production of L-phenylalanine from trans-cinnamic acids by high-level expression of phenylalanine ammonia lyase gene from Rhodosporidium toruloides in Escherichia coli. Biochemical Engineering Journal, 42, 193–197. Cause of Environmental Allergies". NIAID. 22 April 2015. Archived from the original on 17 June 2015 . Retrieved 17 June 2015.Liu W, Kohlen W, Lillo A, Op den Camp R, Ivanov S, Hartog M, Limpens E, Jamil M, Smaczniak C, Kaufmann K, Yang WC, Hooiveld GJ, Charnikhova T, Bouwmeester HJ, Bisseling T, Geurts R (2011) Strigolactone biosynthesis in medicago truncatula and rice requires the symbiotic GRAS-type transcription factors NSP1 and NSP2. Plant Cell 23:3853–3865 Olson, David M.; Dinerstein, Eric; Wikramanayake, Eric D.; etal. (2001). "Terrestrial Ecoregions of the World: A New Map of Life on Earth". BioScience. 51 (11): 933. doi: 10.1641/0006-3568(2001)051[0933:teotwa]2.0.co;2. S2CID 26844434. All living things were traditionally placed into one of two groups, plants and animals. This classification dates from Aristotle (384–322BC), who distinguished different levels of beings in his biology, [5] based on whether living things had a "sensitive soul" or like plants only a "vegetative soul". [6] Theophrastus, Aristotle's student, continued his work in plant taxonomy and classification. [7] Much later, Linnaeus (1707–1778) created the basis of the modern system of scientific classification, but retained the animal and plant kingdoms, naming the plant kingdom the Vegetabilia. [7] Payyavula RS, Navarre DA, Kuhl JC, Pantoja A, Pillai SS (2012) Differential effects of environment on potato phenylpropanoid and carotenoid expression. BMC Plant Biol 12:39 Friedman, William E. (January 2009). "The meaning of Darwin's "abominable mystery" ". American Journal of Botany. 96 (1): 5–21. doi: 10.3732/ajb.0800150. PMID 21628174.

Tonnessen BW, Manosalva P, Lang JM, Baraoidan M, Bordeos A, Mauleon R, Oard J, Hulbert S, Leung H, Leach JE (2015) Rice phenylalanine ammonia-lyase gene OsPAL4 is associated with broad spectrum disease resistance. Plant Mol Biol 87:273–286 Many legumes have Rhizobium nitrogen-fixing bacteria in nodules of their roots, which fix nitrogen from the air for the plant to use; in return, the plants supply sugars to the bacteria. [89] Nitrogen fixed in this way can become available to other plants, and is important in agriculture; for example, farmers may grow a crop rotation of a legume such as beans, followed by a cereal such as wheat, to provide cash crops with a reduced input of nitrogen fertilizer. [90]

ORIGINAL RESEARCH article

Alunni S, Cipiciani A, Fioroni G, Ottavi L (2003) Mechanisms of inhibition of phenylalanine ammonia-lyase by phenol inhibitors and phenol/glycine synergistic inhibitors. Arch Biochem Biophys 412(2):170–175. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0003-9861(03)00007-9 When reproducing sexually, plants have complex lifecycles involving alternation of generations. One generation, the sporophyte, which is diploid (with 2 sets of chromosomes), gives rise to the next generation, the gametophyte, which is haploid (with one set of chromosomes). Some plants also reproduce asexually via spores. In some non-flowering plants such as mosses, the sexual gametophyte forms most of the visible plant. [67] In seed plants (gymnosperms and flowering plants), the sporophyte forms most of the visible plant, and the gametophyte is very small. Flowering plants reproduce sexually using flowers, which contain male and female parts: these may be within the same ( hermaphrodite) flower, on different flowers on the same plant, or on different plants. The pollen produces male gametes that enter the ovule to fertilize the egg cell of the female gametophyte. Fertilization takes place within the carpels or ovaries, which develop into fruits that contain seeds. Fruits may be dispersed whole, or they may split open and the seeds dispersed individually. [68] Asexual Ficinia spiralis spreads asexually with runners in the sand. Plants are distributed almost worldwide. While they inhabit several biomes which can be divided into a multitude of ecoregions, [79] only the hardy plants of the Antarctic flora, consisting of algae, mosses, liverworts, lichens, and just two flowering plants, have adapted to the prevailing conditions on that southern continent. [80]

Guiry, M.D. & Guiry, G.M. (2011), AlgaeBase: Chlorophyta, World-wide electronic publication, National University of Ireland, Galway, archived from the original on 13 September 2019 , retrieved 26 July 2011 Ramsay RR, Tipton KF (2017) Assessment of enzyme inhibition: a review with examples from the development of monoamine oxidase and cholinesterase inhibitory drugs. Molecules 22(7):1192Members of the plant PAL gene family respond differently to various hormones and stresses and are differentially expressed in different tissues and developmental stages of the plant body. The PAL gene family consists of four genes in Arabidopsis, AtPAL1-4, of which AtPAL1, AtPAL2, and AtPAL4 are highly expressed in the stem, and both AtPAL2 and AtPAL4 are expressed in the seed ( Fraser and Chapple, 2011). In addition, the expression of AtPAL1 and AtPAL2 in leaves was induced by low temperature and nitrogen depletion ( Olsen etal., 2008). There are 12 members of the PAL gene family in watermelon, of which 11 ClPAL genes are abundantly expressed in stems, male and female flowers, and 6 ClPAL genes are abundantly or moderately expressed in fruits, and their expression levels are regulated by ethylene signaling ( Dong and Shang, 2013). Also PAL has good disease resistance, and overexpression of AevPAL1 in bread wheat ( Aegilops variabilis) significantly enhanced resistance to the pathogen cereal cyst nematode (CCN) ( Zhang etal., 2021). In wheat ( Triticum aestivum), 11 PAL genes expression was up-regulated and 14 PAL genes expression was down-regulated after inoculation with Puccinia striiformis. The disease severity of TaPAL32 and TaPAL42 silenced plants was found to be higher than that of control plants 14 days after inoculation by VIGS ( Zhan etal., 2022).

Okada T, Mikage M, Sekita S (2008) Molecular characterization of the phenylalanine ammonia-lyase from Ephedra sinica. Biol Pharm Bull 31(12):2194–2199. https://doi.org/10.1248/bpb.31.2194 This causes plants to release oxygen into the atmosphere. Green plants provide a substantial proportion of the world's molecular oxygen, alongside the contributions from photosynthetic algae and cyanobacteria. [57] [58] [59] Plants in the strictest sense include liverworts, hornworts, mosses, and vascular plants, as well as fossil plants similar to these surviving groups (e.g., Metaphyta Whittaker, 1969, [8] Plantae Margulis, 1971 [9]). Numerous animals have coevolved with plants; flowering plants have evolved pollination syndromes, suites of flower traits that favour their reproduction. Many, including insect and bird partners, are pollinators, visiting flowers and accidentally transferring pollen in exchange for food in the form of pollen or nectar. [84]Sixta, Herbert, ed. (2006). Handbook of pulp. Vol.1. Winheim, Germany: Wiley-VCH. p.9. ISBN 978-3-527-30997-9.